Friday, March 25, 2016

## Introduction

Gradient Descent is one of the most popular technique to optimize machine learning algorithm. We've already discussed Gradient Descent in the past in Gradient descent with Python article, and gave some intuitions toward it's behaviour. We've also made an overview about choosing learning rate hyper-parameter for the algorithm in hyperparameter optimization article. So by now, you should have a fair understanding of how it works. Today we'll discuss different ways to optimize the performance of the algorithm itself.

We've already three variants of the Gradient Descent in Gradient Descent with Python article: Batch Gradient Descent, Stochastic Gradient Descent and Mini-Batch Gradient Descent. What we haven't discussed was problems arising when using these techniques. Choosing a proper learning rate is difficult. A too small learning rate leads to tremendously slow convergence, while a very large learning rate that can cause the loss function to fluctuate around the minimum or even to diverge. Additionally, in all these variants of Gradient Descent the same learning rate applies to all parameter updates. However when the data is sparse with features having different frequencies, it would be better to perform a larger update for rarely occurring features.

### Momentum

Gradient Descent struggles navigating ravines, areas where the surface curves much more steeply in one dimension than in another. Once fallen into ravine, Gradient Descent oscillates across the slopes of the ravine, without making much progress towards the local optimum. Momentum technique accelerates Gradient Descent in the relevant direction and lessens oscillations. In the illustrations below, the left one is vanilla Gradient Descent and the right is Gradient Descent with Momentum.

When Momentum technique is applied, the fraction of the update vector of the past time step is added to the current update vector:

$v_t = \gamma v_{t-1} - \eta \nabla_\theta J( \theta_{t-1})$
$\theta_t = \theta_{t-1} + v_t$

The momentum parameter $\gamma$ is usually set to 0.9

The idea behind using momentum accelerating speed of the ball as it rolls down the hill, until it reaches its terminal velocity if there is air resistance, that is our parameter $\gamma$. Similarly the momentum increases updates for dimensions whose gradients point in the same directions and reduces updates for dimensions whose gradients change directions gaining faster convergence while reducing oscillation.

### Nesterov

The formula for Nesterov accelerated gradient is as following with momentum parameter set to 0.9:

$v_t = \gamma_{t-1} v_{t-1} - \eta_{t-1} \nabla_\theta J( \theta_{t-1} + \gamma_{t-1} v_{t-1} )$
$\theta_t = \theta_{t-1} + v_t$

It enjoys stronger theoretical converge guarantees for convex functions and in practice it also consistently works slightly better than standard momentum.

All previous approaches we’ve discussed so far manipulated the learning rate globally and equally for all parameters. Adagrad is a well-suited algorithm for dealing with sparse data - it edits the learning rate to the parameters, performing larger updates for infrequent and smaller updates for frequent parameters. Adagrad uses a different learning rate for every parameter $\theta$ at each step, and not an update for all parameters at once and given by:

$\theta_{t+1} = \theta_{t} - \dfrac{\eta}{\sqrt{G_{t} + \epsilon}} \odot \nabla_\theta J(\theta)$

where $\odot$ is an element-wise multiplication, $\epsilon$ is a smoothing term that avoids division by zero (usually on the order of 1e−8), $G_{t}$ is a diagonal matrix of sum of the squares of the past gradients - $\nabla_\theta J( \theta)^2$

One of Adagrad's main benefits is that it eliminates the need to manually tune the learning rate. Most implementations use a default value of 0.01 and leave it at that.

Adadelta is an improvement over Adagrad which reduces its aggressiveness and monotonically decreasing learning rate. Instead of accumulating all past squared gradients, Adadelta restricts the window of accumulated past gradients to some fixed size $w$.With Adadelta, we do not even need to set a default learning rate.

### RMSprop

$E[\nabla_\theta J( \theta)^2]_t = \gamma E[\nabla_\theta J( \theta)^2]_{t-1} + (1-\gamma) \nabla_\theta J( \theta)^2_t$ $\theta_{t+1} = \theta_{t} - \dfrac{\eta}{\sqrt{E[\nabla_\theta J( \theta)^2]_t + \epsilon}} \nabla_\theta J( \theta)_{t}$